Nutrition and physical activity needs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Nutrition and physical activity needs - Essay Example Fast food is relatively inexpensive, easy to obtain and requires no preparation, so it is often the main choice for the youngest adults in this age group and for working parents. The youngest adults in this group no longer have parental oversight, so freedom of choice may put them at risk for nutritional deficiencies. Current economic conditions make it difficult for the youngest adults to purchase foods of higher nutrient content, which are more costly. Typically they are juggling part time jobs, college or technical school and active social lives. The low cost, popularity and ease of fast foods makes it tempting to rely on them solely to meet nutritional needs. This is particularly true when young adults have busy schedules and little time for food preparation. College campuses and fast food eateries could focus on advertising and providing healthier food options, such as fruit salads, yogurt and other products that are lower in cost. While the older adults in the 18-35 group may spend more time selecting foods and may have more money to spend on healthier choices, they may still be faced with managing many responsibilities. Time is often a factor in deciding which foods to prepare for family meals and which foods are avoided. Those with children are responsible for meeting their nutritional needs as well. It becomes more challenging to meet the nutritional needs of an entire family when those responsible do not establish good eating habits as young adults. It is further complicated when adults responsible for the nutrition of others do not have an adequate understanding of nutrition and energy requirements. Various groups use labels to assist consumers of different cultures in selection of the appropriate and desirable food products. There are labels designed by Melbourne Kashrut Pty, Halal Australia and the Australian Dairy Corporation, to name a few. There is

Speech - The Meaning of Life Essay Example for Free

Speech The Meaning of Life Essay Is human life just a dream, from which we never really awake, as some great thinkers claim? Are we submerged by our feelings, by our loves and hates, by our ideas of good, bad, beautiful, and awful? Are we incapable of knowing beyond those ideas and feelings? Is the reality we know a reality imposed to us by nature? Are the reality and the meaning of life a creation of men, such as music, or love or colors? When I consider the short duration of my life, swallowed up in the eternity that lies before and after it, when I consider the little space I fill and I see, engulfed in the infinite immensity of spaces of which I am unaware, I rest frightened, and astonished, for there is no reason why I should be here rather than there. Who has put me here? By whose order and direction have this place and time have been ascribed to me? Love gives meaning to our lives as do friendship, or art or faith in God. These are factors of true happiness, of inner peace, of feelings of harmony, allowing meaning to our existence. But there is the other side. There is the cruelty of life, the pain, the evil, not to talk of death. When the Tsimtsum sank, not only was Pi shoved face to face with the unknown, but he also lost his family, the core of his human context. Instead, he had to try to survive. Life of Pi is a story about struggling to survive through seemingly insurmountable odds. Throughout the novel, characters are seeking the meaning of life. Pi abandons his lifelong vegetarianism and eats fish to sustain himself. Orange Juice, the peaceful orangutan, fights ferociously against the hyena. Even the severely wounded zebra battles to stay alive; his slow, painful struggle vividly illustrates the sheer strength of his life force. As Martel makes clear in his novel, living creatures will often do extraordinary, unexpected, and sometimes heroic things to survive. However, they will also do shameful and barbaric things if pressed. Exactly like humans. It is between these pendulums the positive, the one that gives happiness and meaning, and the negative that our lives are lived. And when we meditate about all that, we arrive at a diverse and disagreeing set of thoughts about the meaning and purpose of life. Ladies and gentlemen, thank you for your time and attention. I hope I have clarified the thoughts of some, to be aware of the vast world we live in and the astounding beings we truly are. Speak to others of your thoughts and knowledge; I am sure they will be willing to listen.

Employment Relations In France Economics Essay

Employment Relations In France Economics Essay Within Europe France is known for its exceptional employment relations. The French employment relations are characterised by rather low social dialogue and a great interventions of the state. This paper will closely look at the social actors and their role by putting emphasis on collective bargaining and its development since 1980s. The major trends with special attention to the Aubrey Laws will conclude the overview. France Overview With a current population of 64,7 million (INSEE, 2010), France belongs to the most modern countries in the world and to the leaders among European countries (CIA World Factbook). According to EIROnline (2007), French GDP growth, inflation, productivity growth, and the unemployment rate do not substantially differ from EU averages, as indicated in Table 1. Table 1 Facts Figures Source: EIROnline, 2007 The economy in France, which traditionally has been characterised by considerable government ownership and state intervention (dirigeisme), is shifting towards a market-driven economy (CIA World Factbook). Although the state is still present in sectors such as power, public transport, and telecommunication, it has privatised many large companies. With the era of rigueur (rigour) the government extensively distanced itself from economic intervention. Though dirigisme decreased, France is still typified as a state-dominated economy (Jenkins, 2000), especially in the labour market. The political environment in France has been characterised by volatility which changed with the inception of the Fifth Republic in 1958 (Goetschy and Jobert, 2004). From 1958 to 1981 the Right took the reins, while in 1981 the socialist dominance under Franà §ois Mitterrand took over which resulted in period of instability (Knapp and Wright, 2006, p. 254). Governments of the right and left experienced a rotative period, with a temporary cohabitation (Goetschy and Jobert, 2004). In 1995 Franà §ois Mitterrand turned over the reins to Jacques Chirac, a right president, who lasted till 2007. His successor, Nicolas Sarkozy from the right government is the current President of France. Employment Relations in France Employment relations in France are highly influenced by the demographics as well as the legal and political environment of the country (Cerdin and Peretti, 2001). According to the National Institute for Statistics and Economic Studies (INSEE, 2010), the employment rate for the working population in 2008 accounted for about 28 million, corresponding to 56,2 percent of employed people above 15 years. Whereas the unemployment rate in France amounted for 7,8 percent in 2008 which correspond to 2.1 million people. The young people (15 to 24 years-old) are representing the majority of the unemployed with about 19 percent (in 2008). Generally, the young people are most sensitive to the economic fluctuation of the employment market. The labour market participation rate of the 15 to 24-years old is declining due to the trend towards longer schooling (Goetschy and Jobert, 2004, p. 177). France has more women in work force than EU average (Brewster et al., 2004). The female labour market participation has risen from 37 percent in 1963 (Goetschy and Jobert, 2004, p. 176) to almost 52 percent in 2008 (INSEE, 2009). Within Europe, France is characterised by an increased age of the working population. While the proportion of the people between 20 and 59 years decreases, the population proportion of under 20-year-old and above 60-year-old grows. Two factors are responsible for this peculiarity the post-war population explosion as well as the collapse of the birth rate from 1930 to 1945 (Cerdin and Peretti, 2001). In 2008, 83 percent of the working population was between the ages of 25 and 54 (INSEE, 2009). These numbers can be explained by the delayed entrance of the young in the labour market and early retirement due to an increased early retirement policies since 1974 and the implementation of retirement at age 60 in 1982. Further distinctive characteristic of the French employment relations is its elitism. Barsoux and Lawrence (1997, p. 11) admit that France is a society characterised by a unitary elite. Complementary, Jackson (2002, p. 38) describes the educational system in France as being inegalitarian, discriminatory, and exclusive. The highest level of the education system is encompassed in the so-called grandes à ©coles. The grandes à ©coles, where managers are typically recruited from, typify an essential indication for a high potential which is regarded more important than the actual personal potential. Managers form part of a social elite, called cadre. Management itself is perceived more as a state of being in France and its development is related to the social and historical context (Beardwell and Claydon, 2007). The influence of the state on employment relations in France is considerable. EIROnline (2007) describes France as being known for its dirigiste type of economy or state-managed capitalism. Employment relation in France were not only influenced by the predominance of the state but also by the imbalance between labour characterised by more revolutionary socialists and employers being typified by paternalistic of reactionary views (Traxler and Huerner, 2007). Unions and Employee Representation Within Europe, France has two distinctive features: although it has the majority of trade unions, its membership rate is the lowest among the European countries (EUROnline, 2007; Ebbinghaus and Visser, 2000). Trade union coverage is higher in large enterprises than in small companies with highest coverage rate in the public sector. Sector or branch levels are the most common levels of trade union organisation (EIROnline, 2007). French trade union, other than union in rest of the European countries, do not offer collective services to its members, which partly may explain the low membership rate as well as the lack of need to benefit from a membership (Brewster et al., 2004). There are five major representative union confederations and employers are obliged to recognise them in case of at least one employee being an official representative of one of them (Scho, 2008). The five unions, which are considered representative at national level, regardless of the size of their membership, are summarised in the table below. Table 2 Trade Unions Source: EUROnline, 2007 All agreements met by the representative unions were for a long period considered legally effective. This fact permitted employers to legally implement an agreement even if it has been signed by just one minority union (Brewster et al., 2004). The Fillon Law of 2004 however widened the scope of this majority principle. French union show a further characteristic uncommon in Europe. Especially SMEs, who usually have no union representativeness, make use of the so-called mandating process. Introduced in October 1995 by a three-year national multi-sector agreement, the law especially aimed to encourage negotiations of small and non-union company agreements (Goetschy and Jobert, 2004). The purpose behind the involvement of non-representatives was to increase the typically low membership rate of French unions. For instance, about one-third of collective agreement accompanying the 35-hour-week law application were signed by mandated workers (Pedersini, 2010). Employees representation in French companies has rather a complex structure and is incorporated in several representative bodies at the enterprise level (Goetschy and Jobert, 2004). The four major players are: Table 2 Employee Representation Workforce delegates (dà ©là ©guà ©s du personnel) Workforce delegates are mandatory for companies with 10 or more employees. Elected by all employees, the delegates are representatives of employees for individual or collective concern to the management. Work council (comità © dentreprise) Work council is mandatory for companies with 50 or more employees. Elected by all employees and representatives of trade unions, the council has a consultative role about the decisions of the employer. Furthermore, it is concerns with allocating funds for social and cultural facilities for employees. Workplace Health and Safety committee (Comità © dHygià ¨ne, de Sà ©curità ©, et des Conditions de Travail) The committee is compulsory for all companies with more than 50 employees. It includes head of the company plus employee representatives and has a consultative role about working conditions. Trade union delegates Every representative union is given the right for a delegate in a company with at least 50 employees who besides representing their unions also represent employees. Source: Brewster et al, 2004 Federations of Employers Employer representation stands in sharp contrast to the employee representation. Indeed, three out of four employers are represented in an employer organisation (EUROnline, 2007). The major association is the MEDEF (Mouvement des Entreprises de France), former CNPF (Conseil National du Patronat Franà §ais). It has a multi-layered structure consisting of various sectoral and territorial organisations (Traxler and Huerner, 2007). MEDEF, founded in 1998, brings together all companies with at least 10 employees. Despite this official purpose, MEDEF also includes several smaller companies. It directly organises 87 federations that cover about 600 associations and 165 regional organisations (EUROnline, 2007). The membership in MEDEF is covered by about 750,000 companies and 15 million employees from all sectors except agriculture and certain service professions (Traxler and Huerner, 2007). The SMEs are represented by the CGPME (Confà ©dà ©ration gà ©nà ©rale du patronat des petites et moyennes entreprises), and self-employed artisans by the UPA (Union Professionnelle Artisanale) (EUROnline, 2007). The State The French state is not only a major player in employment relations but also plays an essential role as an employer. As already mentioned, despite some privatisations, the government still remains prevailing in some sectors. Furthermore, Ruysseveldt et al. (1995) stresses that French state is typified for having its intervention in employment relations which are typically subject of collective bargaining by incorporating these issues in law. The intervention of the state is for instance given through the requirement for company-level negotiations, legal extension of collective agreements, and determination of minimum wage. Therefore, almost 90 percent of employees are covered by agreements securing at least minimum standards, despite the low union membership and a decentralized bargaining system (Ebbinghaus, 2004). For instance, the minimum wage (SMIC), a cross-sector minimum wage, is defined by legislation, involving all employees. Collective bargaining is also used to set branch-level minimum wages which however, are usually lower than the SMIC (EIROnline, 2007). Finally, the French state played an important role in the development of French employment relations as demonstrated in the following chapters. Collective Bargaining and Employee Participation Collective agreement forms an important part of negotiations between the law and the individual work contracts. Within Europe, France distinguishes itself from other countries by not attributing collective agreement as a central element of employment relations (Traxler and Huerner, 2007). The characteristics of the bargaining system have been extensively shaped by successive pieces of legislation (Goetschy, 1998, p. 358) and thus intensive state intervention. Collective agreements face further obstacles. Traxler and Huerner (2007, p.126) point out that there is a lack of shared identity among the unions and the employees who do not feel bound by the decisions taken by the representative unions. Andolfatto and Labbà © (2006) observe a similar dilemma for the employers and the associations. According to Schmidt (2006, p.121) policies are designed without the systematic input from societal actors, but actors are subsequently accommodated in a rather flexible implementation process, oft en based on derogation from the law. The bargaining structure in France is pyramidal and statute law is decisive. After the abolishment of the favourability principle (principe de faveur), decentralised levels are given autonomy on certain issues as long as the law is respected (plancher legal) (Euronline, 2007). National-level agreements are less frequently used than lower level agreements. Company-levels negotiations gained on importance in the field of wages and working hours which was further encouraged by the Fillion Law (2004) and Aubrey Law (1998/2000/2002). Development since 1980s Before 1980s, employment relations in France were characterised by ideological confrontation between the revolutionary labour movement and collective bargaining-aversive employers (Hoang Ngoc and Lallement, 1994) and collective bargaining particularly took place on the industry level (Goetschy and Jobert, 2004). The 1980s brought a significant move towards decentralisation with a Socialists government that supported collective bargaining in terms of politics and laws. Throughout the 1980s various company-level institutions and practices evolved which enabled negotiation of economic reforms and which tried to limit private sector industrial conflicts (Howell, 2006). The reforms were accompanied by a state intervention that sought to support workplace flexibility negotiations. Although the state experienced varying governments (Left and Right), it pursued equal objectives which underlying strategy was to create legal obligations within companies to establish self-sustaining social dial ogues which again lead to a deregulation of the labour market. One of the major legislation pieces of the 1980s was the Auroux Report (1981) which contributed mainly to a higher involvement of employees into the company and sought to bring unions and companies closer together (Hoang Ngoc and Lallement, 1994). Focusing on collective bargaining as a keystone in the reform, Auroux created an obligations for employers and unions for regular negotiations at industry as well as company level (Eaton, 2000). This reform introduced more balance between the state and collective bargaining as it put more emphasis on bargaining than on the law itself (Goetschy and Jobert, 2004). In 1987 collective bargaining made further steps towards decentralisation. From then on company-level negotiations were freed from any linkage with a sectoral agreement, and annualisation and more flexible opening was allowed without reducing working hours. In the 1990s multi-industry bargaining gained on importance after its decline during the 70s and 80s. It was supported by government, as well as employers (by CNPF) and unions (by CFDT) who were aiming at a consensus approach towards the modernisation of French companies (Howell, 2006). Enormous emphasis of multi-industry bargaining was put on the training that became a mandatory part of collective bargaining (Goetschy and Jobert, 2004). Further significant issue throughout the 1990s was the restructuring of the employee representation within the enterprise. According to Howell (2006, p.169) French companies experienced transformations that had the effect of deepening and broadening the construction of a set of firm-level institutions that regularised social dialogue with largely non-union employee representatives. Worth mentioning is also the agreement on the articulation of bargaining levels and the possibility of negotiations in companies without union representatives (1995) which brought two main transformations for collective bargaining. First, the hierarchical level of the three bargaining levels (multi-industry, industry, company) became more complementary. Second, the absence of union delegate gave the elected employee representative and the employees mandated by unions the authority to sign company agreements. Again in 2000s employment relations development signalised the trend towards more decentralised collective bargaining and a state which exercised restraint in the social dialogue of the labour market. This intention was implemented through the Gà ©nisson Law (2001) which made bargaining on equality compulsory at company level (annually) and sectoral level (every three years) (Gregory and Milner, 2009). The 2003 Fillon law encouraged the move towards company-level negotiation about wages and reduced working time by accepting derogation agreements. In July 2008 new law on social democracy and working time reform set new measures for the representativeness of trade unions, especially by removing the irrefragable presumption of representativeness and making representativeness dependent on the results of the workplace elections (Boulon, 2008). Concluding, the last decades were characterised by various developments in French industrial relations. Despite frequent changes of government, France has experienced a high degree of consistency in the direction of employment relations reforms (Howell, 2006). High level collective bargaining shifted towards more decentralisation aiming more at the company-level while the labour market and workplace experienced greater flexibility. Nevertheless, these developments were not simply accompanied by the distancing of the state from industrial relations, leaving the field to labour and unions. On the contrary, providing the social actors with company-level bargaining and agreements, developments were initiated and controlled by the state. Self-sustaining bargaining never took place (Lallement and Mà ©riaux, 2003). Thus the state reforms were still shaping the areas of social relations. Finally, Jefferys (2003, p. 128) states the state remains at the heart of the organisation of relations between capital and French labour. Major Trends in Employment Relations The Aubrey Law France faced the most bargaining activity over working time reduction in the late 1990s and early 2000s, driven by legislation reducing the working week from 39 to 35 hours. The so-called Aubrey law, named after Martine Aubry (minister who introduced the legislation), was the sixth law in seventeen years which has an impact on the working time (Jefferys, 2000). The 35-hour week was the flagship policy of Socialist Jospins (1997-2002) plural-left coalition government (Hayden, 2006, p. 505). The main purpose of the law implicated the reduction of the working time from 39 to 35 hours by offering financial incentives to companies that used collective agreements for the creation and protection of jobs while reducing the working time (Jefferys, 2000). Using this law, the government also had the ambition to encourage the social partners to participate more actively in the law-making process (Jefferys, 2000). The legislation which began with a framework law in 1998 resulted in a three-steps process (Levy, 2006): the first law introduced in 1998 provided the terms for voluntary work time agreements; in 2000, a second Aubrey law made work time reduction mandatory for companies who failed to reach agreements employing 20 or more workers; the third law, for 2002, which aimed at extension of this legislation to smaller firms, failed when the Left was replaced by the new conservative government. First Aubrey Law (1998/1999) Aubrey I introduced a variety of ways for the reduction of working time, including annualisation of hours, extended vacation periods, and a shorter working week. The companies were given increased flexibility in the creation of work time with the essential requirement for collective bargaining (Supiot, 2001, p. 92). Social costs reliefs were promised to those companies that quickly negotiated the reduction in working hours and created or preserved jobs. Nevertheless, the collective agreements reached under Aubrey I proved that employers put special emphasis on the flexibility in work time reduction left to them rather than on the incentives linked to the implementation (Levy, 2006). The 1999 law addressed the issue of trade union representativeness (Jefferys, 2000). From then on the social costs reliefs were only made available to those agreements met by union representing the majority of the work-force. Minority agreements were only accepted if ratified by entire work-force referendum, nevertheless the benefits of the reduced charges were not forwarded to these agreements (Howell, 2006). Smaller firms that lack a representation of unions could benefit from the legislation through the mandating process allowing them to sign company-level agreements. Without the mandating procedure agreements became legal with the confirmation of a majority of employees and local labour-business commission. Second Aubrey Law (2000) On 19th of January 2000, the Aubrey II came into effect reducing the working week from 39 to 35 hours for all enterprises with more than 20 employees. Due to the high attention paid to the flexibility in the implementation of work-time reduction, the second law provided more innovations in this area still with the prerequisite of a collective agreement. The lack of collective agreement meant less flexibility in options for work time reduction. According to Howell (2006) without a collective agreement, the reduction in work time had to be on a monthly or weekly basis, but with an agreement there were a range of other options, including annualisation, a wage increase offset against overtime, additional days off and so on. (p. 148) The law therefore aimed at the encouragement of the dialogue between social partners. Work time reduction was completed on two levels. Before Aubrey II, company-level agreements were predominant, while after year 2000 branch-level agreements became more common. Outcomes The in beginning much discussed and controversial legislation has survived. Though when the Left gave over to the Right government in 2002, the extension for small firms planned in that year was blocked. Furthermore, certain adjustments like extension of the allowable overtime have been adopted. Various studies about the implementation of the laws, inter alia conducted by the Ministerial Office of Employment and Solidarity (completed mainly between 1998 and 1999), provided following results (Neumann, 2004): On the employee side, within a year on the first law, in 69 of the 180 bargaining sectors, at least one of the representative national union has signed framework agreements covering 8.3 million workers About 300.000 new jobs (out of 1,65 mio) were created which were assigned to the relaxation of the social costs and the reduction of working hours of the law By the implication of the legislation in September 2002, almost half of the employed people were influenced by the Aubrey law Critical evaluation The significance of the Audrey Laws does not lie in the actual reduction in the working time. Its essence are the wide-ranging consequences on the employment relations in France. For the Jospin government the law provided an opportunity to try to use the basic sympathy of the French electorate with the idea of shorter working hours to encourage the organised decentralisation of collective bargaining (Traxler 1994, p. 184-86). The laws abolished many constraints on temporal flexibility and shifted the emphasis of collective bargaining towards the company-level. Some of the various advantages provided by the Aubrey law affect collective bargaining and work reorganisation. The company-level collective bargaining was influenced tremendously by the legislation. While after 1998 the rate of agreements signed increased by estimated 15,000 per year, after 1999, when the law became mandatory, agreements number increased by 35,000 a year (Howell, 2006). The financial incentives provided by the Aubrey laws were attached the condition to agree on work time reduction by a collective bargaining. Consequently, this collective agreement offered more options and flexibility for work time reduction to the firms, thus leading to work reorganisation. Many experiments which were made in this area including recalculation of the work time, work shift, and adoption to the market requirements, proved to be advantageous for some companies. Additionally, annualisation became very popular supplying companies with enormous flexibility in the work time reductions. Despite these advantages the Aubrey laws was met with mingled feelings from the social actors. The legislation was considered an attack on entrepreneurs, a triumph of ideology over reason, and even economic suicide (Hayden, 2006). Still, with the change of the government in 2002 the legislation has not been abolished, although it experienced substantial criticism. Instead, the Right provided more relaxation and greater flexibility introduced by the Fillon Laws 2003 and 2004 indicating that the effects of the Aubrey laws were less harmful than illustrated by critics. On the contrary, a study conducted by IMF in November 2006 (Estevà £o and Sà ¡, 2006), indicated that the legislation appeared to have a rather negative effect as it failed to create more jobs and negatively influenced employers and employees as they tried to neutralise the laws effect on hours of work and monthly wages. The major concerns were raised by the employers. CNPF became MEDEF in October 1998 under the pressure from French firms for a more aggressive political position (Jefferys, 2000). One year later, in October 1999, a protest with 25000 people against the second law followed. In November, MEDEF threatened to pull out of the bipartite national unemployment benefit scheme if the government make use of UNEDIC (Union nationale interprofessionnelle pour lemploi dans lindustrie et le commerce) the National Union Interprofessional for Employment in Industry and Trade agency of the French government which provided unemployed people with social benefits, to subsidise state incentives to reduce working time (Jefferys, 2000). Additionally, by creating a financial disincentive in case of overtime, the 35-hour-week legislation forced employers to undergo a more fundamental reorganisation of work (Howell, 2006). From the employees perspective, the law could be viewed ambiguously as a liberator and job creator or as a mechanism for introducing asocial work schedules (Bouffartigue, 1997, p. 256). Tensions on the company-level were illustrated for instance by the Peugeot-Citroen strikes, when the Saturday was introduced as a compulsory working day. Additionally, concerns arose about the decrease in wage level, although employees were promised to not be disadvantaged regarding income reductions which was supported by the unions slogan 35 hours pays 39 (Estevà £o and Sà ¡, 2006). The question about the representativeness of those who signed the agreement also forms a part of criticism of the legislation. As mentioned several times, the mandating process can be used by all firms with a lack of union representativeness. The mandating process prevailed in the company-levels agreements (70% in 2001), predominantly by smaller companies (Howell, 2006). Nevertheless, this process failed to recruit more members to unions. Finally, the Aubrey laws can be considered to be an oxymoron. In times of globalisation and extensive pressures on firms to stay competitive, France is trying to improve its competitiveness and decrease unemployment by reducing the working time. The work-sharing logic did not fit in this time when the unemployment rate amounted to nearly 10 percent and an average full-time working week was almost 43 hours (INSEE, 2010). There arises the question what the government could have done better. After considering the development of the employment relations in France, the trend of decentralisation should be pursued more constantly. State intervention should be reduced to give the social partners the possibility to develop and implement own methods for the work time reduction as the legislation did not match appropriately the needs of all French companies. Especially, the smaller companies who suffered from the law and feared to lose their competitiveness, should be better integrated and left more power and flexibility to adopt the legislation. Therefore, although the employers were gradually given more flexibility it still was embedded in frameworks which convey an impression of regulated deregulation once again demonstrating the predominant position of the French state. Other Major Trends Collective Bargaining Reform One of the significant changes to the industrial relations system took place in 2004 with the implementation of the Fillon law. The law brought two major changes into collective bargaining. The favourability principle (principe de faveur), where agreements from lower and higher levels may deviate from each other if it more advantageous for the employees concerned, was relaxed for certain cases (e.g. working time) (OECD, 2005). The favourability principle has been retained for minimum wages, job classifications, supplementary social protection measures and multi-company and cross-sector vocational training funds (EIRR, 2006). The other change concerned the approval of agreements. Hitherto, an agreement has been valid even if it had been signed by only one trade union with representative status. The new law widened the scope of the majority principle, the application of which depends on the level of negotiations. Individual Right to Training in France In September 2003 a national cross-sectoral agreement on employees lifelong access to training was concluded, approved by all five representative unions (Vincent, 2003). The law promotes individual training rights for employees while putting its focus on sectoral negotiations. Labour Market Modernisation In January 2008, a step towards French flexicurity has been made by the agreement on the modernisation of the labour market. It provides more flexibility on issues like recruitment and termination of employment at the same time maintaining certain employee rights in term of termination (Lefresne, 2008). Conclusion In conclusion, employment relation in France can be described as developing towards decentralisation and more flexibility to the advantage of business and labour. Although, the state is taking distance from intervention in the economy, it remains the predominant character in the regulation of social relations.

Performance Enhancing Drugs Essay -- sports, athletes, drug addiction

Fourth quarter, three seconds left, tie game. Bodies exhausted and sweat all over. Ball in hand and the shot goes up. Swoosh, and the crowd goes wild! The intensity in the arena is insane and the fans all cheer out. This is what all athletes dream of. Playing the sport that they love and getting paid to do it, but how can a professional perform at the top of their game and have supporting fans if they waste everything away on drugs. They have people who look up to them as role models and they get paid to perform. The sport is their life and also supports others. Non-professional athletes are not held to this standard however and should be allowed to do as they please. Although some drugs can be seen as damaging to the health of individuals, especially athletes, some drugs can be used in other ways. However the main problem of drugs isn’t the use of the drug but the abuse. People become addicted to the substance and tend to rely on it rather than occasional use. Someone such as an athlete should not be addicted to something so life consuming as a drug. The lack of self-control with athletes towards the drugs has become a concerning social problem. Those who watch sports or look up to athletes have noticed the great disappointment when the drugs affect their body in many ways so professionals should be held to a higher standard than high school athletes. â€Å"High school athletes are not under contract, they do not get paid, and they don’t have social expectations. Professional athletes are expected to treat their bodies a certain way and drugs interfere with that. A high school player is without expectations and they should be able to decide for themselves what they do. Whether drugs cause enough harm to interfere with an athlete’s fu... ...Top List Of NBA's Most Valuable Teams." Forbes. Forbes Magazine, 23 Jan. 2013. Web. 16 Mar. 2014. dollar-knicks-and-lakers-top-list-of-nbas-most-valuable-teams/>. "Drug Abuse & Addiction." Drug Abuse and Addiction: Signs, Symptoms, and Help for Drug Problems and Substance Abuse. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Mar. 2014. nt.htm>. "Opinion L.A." Student Drug Testing Doesn't Work [Blowback]. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2014. . "Parents, Experts Divided on School Drug Testing." Msnbc.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2014. childrens_health/t/parents-experts-divided-school-drug-testing/>.

Pet Overpopulation Epidemic

Persuasive Speech Topic: Pet Overpopulation Epidemic General Purpose: To persuade. Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that the public is to blame for the pet overpopulation epidemic. Central Idea: In order to control the overwhelming population of homeless pets, we need to stop throwing our â€Å"family friends† away. There are 1. 5 dogs and cats put to sleep every second & 4-6 million dogs and cats are euthanized every year, states the Humane Society. The pet overpopulation epidemic has become more than overwhelming. But who is at fault for the ever increasing number of homeless and euthanized pets each year?The public, government and breeders all have their hand in this catastrophic epidemic. So who is to blame for this epidemic? Since government intervention has caused more harm than foul, what will need to change in order for anything to improve? The pet overpopulation epidemic is not a myth, not something to be swept under the rug or shamelessly forgotten. This epi demic is our making and therefore our responsibility. So where does the problem really lie? One would think its 100% the fault of breeders and those multitudes of litters. But no, that is not the route of the problem, not by a long shot.Breeders are the effect of the problem, and the massive pet overpopulation is the aftermath. Yes, breeders, as a whole, are breeding more litters than there are homes for, yet, they are selling them. So why is that, why are breeders selling their litters when there's a worldwide pet overpopulation problem? Because people do not look at the purchase of a puppy or kitten as a lifelong commitment. Puppies and kittens are so cute, most are purchased on impulse. Who could, after all, resist that cute little face? Yes, the problem lies with the general public who, do not research, and buy these pets without thoroughly thinking it through.Without doing their homework on the type of pet they should get, and without taking the time to learn what a dog really needs in order to be that perfect dog. They later â€Å"Get Rid† of their pet, passing them onto rescues or pounds. Later, most will end up â€Å"Testing Out† a different type of pet. The vast majority of people, who adopt a puppy or kitten, do not keep the animal for life. If this were to turn around and most people were to actually keep their pets through the good times and the bad, as they do their own children, the demand for these animals would go down.With less of a demand, breeders would not breed as many litters. Breeders are only breeding as many litters as they do, because people are buying them. The demand for a cute little puppy or kitten is great, because people do not keep the animal for life. Animals are recycled. If a breeder had a litter and could not sell the puppies, they would not keep having litter after litter. People are buying them, so breeders are breeding them. In a perfect world, breeders would breed less and force people to adopt from an ani mal rescue, but this is not a perfect world.The solution lies with the general public educating themselves, supply and demand, that's the solution. Lessen the demand and the supply will, on its own, lessen. The power lies within each and every one of us. Scripted by Kim Sturla (of the San Mateo ordinance fame) and her continual cross-country junketing preaching her message: â€Å"The problem is simple: we have too many dogs and cats. Too many for too few homes. † Another contributing factor to this huge problem is government intervention. The state run dog pounds make it way took easy to unload the responsibility of owning a pet onto someone else.Most people could â€Å"Get Rid† of their dogs in one day. Almost anyone can take their pets to the pound. It is very easy to â€Å"Get Rid† of a dog or cat at a local state run kill shelter (dog & cat pound), but it's not so easy to adopt a dog from one. Some years back my cousin went to a state run dog pound near his work and tried to adopt a dog. He was told it was the dogs last day, yes it was going to be killed the next day. My husband told the shelter he wanted to adopt the dog. Upon doing his paperwork he was told he could not adopt the dog because he didn't live in that county.He explained he worked down the street, didn't live in the county but worked there. No, that was not acceptable; he was not allowed to adopt the dog. The pound was going to kill the dog, but would not adopt it out to a man who lived in the next county over. These state run pounds have all kinds of rules and restrictions in place for adopting a pet, but not for dumping one. Yes, they will take your pet, and they will also kill it for you. Know if you take your dog or cat to one of these pounds chances are extremely high it will be dead in a month.The majority of cats and dogs who are taken to this state run kill shelters are not adopted out, but are killed. One might as well save the tax payers some money and kill the animals themselves. Sound harsh? Yes, it is, so don't take your pets to the pound. You took on this responsibility, now you must deal with it without dumping your problems onto someone else. What needs to change, the attitude of the general public. When one decides to buy a cute little puppy or kitten, the decision should be looked at as a 10-15 year commitment.If one cannot, or does not, wish to commit this amount of time to a dog or cat, do not buy a puppy or kitten, and then pass your problem off to someone else when it grows up and the situation does not work out as you envisioned it would. Just like when one decides to have a human baby, things will not be perfect. The child will not be perfect. They will be expensive and press us to the end with issues to deal with. Dogs and cats are not disposable and they are not all the same. Chances are, a type of dog that will fit into your lifestyle will not be the type of dog that will fit into your neighbor’s lifestyle.Sometime s there is no type of dog that will fit into your lifestyle, and if you want a pet, it’s time to consider something else, something less demanding. This research should be done before you adopt a pet, it should not be a trial and error experience. With the internet so readily available, there is no excuse for not researching BEFORE adopting a pet. It should be made harder to dump unwanted animals off at these state pounds, putting more responsibility on the pet owner. Maybe than people would think twice about buying a puppy or kitten when they were not sure if they were ready for the responsibility of owning one for life.These state run shelters are hurting the pet overpopulation problem more than they are helping. The world would be a better place if there were not an easy place to dump your pets after you got tired of them. Let private no kill rescues work with people who think they want to dump their dog. It needs to be harder for someone to dump an unwanted pet and never look back. If you would like to try owning a dog or cat, but are not sure if you are a dog / cat person, start with a full grown homeless dog or cat rather than adopting a puppy or kitten.Grown cats and dogs are easier to care for than kittens and puppies and you will not be contributing to the overpopulation problem should you decide it was not something you should have taken on. There are millions of wonderful dogs and cats that need homes. People who adopt a cute little puppy or kitten without researching, how a dog thinks, the type of pet they are getting, the care, time and responsibility it will need, and end up â€Å"Getting Rid† of your pet after it has outgrown that cute puppy or kitten stage, using one of the many common excuses for not keeping a pet, it is you who are the problem for the worlds pet overpopulation.Bibliography American Humane Association. Adoption & Pet Care: Issues and information. 2009. 5 11 2010 . Avery, Gladys. â€Å"Overpopulation – The Importance of Spaying and Neutering. † 22 July 2007. I Heart Paws. 5 November 2010 . Humane Society. Pet Over Population. 2010. 18 11 2010 . Mansuso, Judie. â€Å"One of the most frequent questions asked about SB 250 is. † n. d. SB:250. 5 November 2010 . Pennington, Ian. â€Å"Facts on Pet Overpopulation. † n. d. Eziine @rticles. 10 11 2010 . Sadler, Anna. â€Å"Pet Overpopulation — A Self-Fulfilling Prophecy? † September 1994. The Cat Fanciers Association, Inc. 10 11 2010 .

College Binge Drinking Epidemic

College Binge Drinking Epidemic Throughout the years, drinking alcohol in excessive amounts has become somewhat synonymous with the college experience. It has become an expected occurrence for college-aged students to drink and party regularly, and overtime has transformed into an accepted social norm of college life. Extreme drinking has been a consistent social problem that has substantially grown on college campuses all around the United States for the past few decades. In fact, binge drinking is consistently voted as the most serious problem on campuses by collegiate presidents (College Binge Drinking Facts).Thus, most campuses have recognized binge drinking as a serious problem, yet this epidemic continues on, and many seem to turn a blind eye toward it. According to Learn-About-Alcoholism. com, 90% of the alcohol consumed by teens is consumed in the form of binge drinking. Binge drinking is a widespread phenomenon on most college campuses, including the University of Massachuse tts Amherst, and has harmful and dangerous consequences as well as significant impacts on the goal higher education. First, it is important to establish a definition for the term ‘binge drinking. The National Institute for Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAA) defines binge drinking as â€Å"a pattern of drinking alcohol that brings blood alcohol concentration (BAC) to 0. 08 gram-percent or above. For a typical adult, this pattern corresponds to consuming five or more drinks (male), or four or more drinks (female), in about two hours† (What Colleges Need to Know Now). In essence, binge drinking is the drinking of alcoholic beverages with the primary intention of becoming heavily intoxicated by alcohol over a short period of time.In a nationwide survey, nearly half of all college students (42%) reported binge drinking during the last two weeks. It is obvious that binge drinking is a severe problem on college campuses as almost half of all students engage in this risky acti vity that leads to unhealthy and negative outcomes. In this situation, the objective social issue is binge drinking on college campuses around the country, including UMass Amherst. The subjective social problems are all of the various repercussions that binge drinking can result in (Lundquist Lecture January 25).Most college students do not consider these serious risks when they participate in heavy drinking. These consequences include intentional and unintentional injuries, alcohol poisoning, physical and sexual abuses, unprotected sex and sexually transmitted diseases, relationship problems, alcohol addiction, and poor grades. Long-term use of alcohol risks liver damage, pancreatitis, certain cancers, literal shrinkage of the brain, neurological damage, high blood pressure, stroke, and other cardiovascular diseases (Witmer).It is clear there are countless negative effects both physically and mentally, and long-term and short-term caused by excessive alcohol consumption. There are numerous groups of people who view binge drinking on campuses as problematic. School administrators and the faculty of colleges are concerned with this problem because it tarnishes the reputation of the school, inflicts damage to school property, and injures or even kills students. Parents of these college students also view drinking as problematic, as it is likely they are paying for their children to attend school, and their teens are partying their college years away.Students who do not binge drink on campus but witness the effects of it on their peers and friends are concerned with this problem, and are also greatly affected by the behavior of students who binge drink. Among students who do not binge drink on a given night, 71% have had sleep or study disrupted, 11% had been pushed, hit, or assaulted by the binge drinker, 57% had to spend the majority of their sleep time caring for the intoxicated student, 23% had experienced an unwanted sexual encounter, and 16% had property da mage (College Binge Drinking Facts).On the other hand, students who are engaging in binge drinking do not view this as a social problem as they are oblivious to the risky outcomes and alarming statistics. I believe excessive drinking has been defined as a social problem on the UMass Amherst campus because programs and campaigns have been established to help reduce the amount of binge drinking among students. For example, BASICS (Alcohol Screening and Intervention for College Students) is a program for students found in violation of the UMass liquor code. The program includes two 50-minute counseling sessions with a drug and alcohol prevention specialist.About 1,000 students a year go through the program, mostly students who have violated the campus alcohol rules, but students may also attend on their own free will. Furthermore, freshmen at UMass are required to take a 75-minute online course about alcohol consumption (Drake). UMass also offers many other activities on campus to give extra opportunities for students to participate in rather than illegal drinking. The lifecycle of binge drinking has been established through the NIAA’s definition of binge drinking which defines the problem.The public has transformed it into a public issue with organizations such as SADD and Alcoholics Anonymous. The lifecycle of the binge drinking problem continues with a debate over the cause of it, and finally finishes with coming up with a solution to reduce the amount of binge drinking on campuses (Lundquist Lecture January 25). UMass Amherst has a history of binge drinking and wild parties, thus earning itself the nicknames Zoomass, The Zoo, and Zoomass Slamherst. Although UMass has many outstanding attributes to the school, its drinking reputation and party scene still seems to stand out from the rest of what the school has to offer.In 2005, the Princeton Review awarded UMass Amherst one of the â€Å"Best Northeastern Colleges,† as well as one of the eighty-on e nationwide â€Å"Colleges with a Conscience† for its exceptional community-service learning programs. The Princeton Review also named UMass Amherst the number nine party school in the nation, and obviously this ranking gained more press and attention than the other recognitions (Drake). Most college students do not consider the harmful consequences, both short term and long term, when going out for a night of binge drinking.The three leading causes of death for 15 to 24 year olds are car accidents, homicides, and suicides, and alcohol is a leading factor in all three. Specifically, 1,700 college students between the ages of 18 and 24 die each year from alcohol-related unintentional injuries, including motor vehicle crashes. Annually, an estimated 30,000 college students require medical treatment after overdosing on alcohol. Also, 599,000 college students aged 18 to 24 sustain unintentional injuries each year from use of alcohol.Alcohol is also a catalyst for sexual behavior s, both unprotected and unwanted. More than 97,000 students between the ages of 18 and 24 are victims of alcohol-related sexual assault or date rape. Additionally, 400,000 students aged 18 to 24 had unprotected sex and more than 100,000 students of this age group report having been too intoxicated to know if they consented to having sex (A Snapshot of Annual High-Risk College Drinking Consequences). Alcohol use in college campuses also have a severe negative effect on the academic performance of students who partake in binge drinking.About 25% of college students report academic penalties as a result of drinking such as missing class, falling behind, doing poorly on exams or papers, and receiving lower grades overall (A Snapshot of Annual High-Risk College Drinking Consequences). In fact, frequent binge drinkers are twenty-one times more likely than non-binge drinkers to miss classes, fall behind in schoolwork, engage in vandalism, be injured or hurt, engage in unplanned sexual acti vity, not use protection when having sex, get in trouble with campus police, or drive a car after drinking (Binge Drinking on College Campuses).Some of the top reasons college students give for exposing themselves to binge drinking are drinking to have a good time, drinking to get drunk, and drinking to celebrate. Other rationales are peer pressure, stress from academic and familial issues, and the culture of alcohol consumption on campuses. Students that are more likely to be binge drinkers are white, involved in athletics, age twenty-three or younger, and are residents of a fraternity or a sorority. It is also reported that the prevalence of binge drinking among men is two times the prevalence among women, and is more common by older teens than younger teens.Statistics show that 35% of adults with alcohol dependency developed symptoms by age 19, which is the age of a college student. The proportion of current drinkers that binge is highest in the 18 to 20 year old group (51%) (Qui ck Stats: Binge Drinking). When considering different sociological perspectives on college binge drinking, there are three different outlooks on how it originates among students. The pathological perspective on binge drinking states that drinking is the result of innately evil individuals. The abnormality is genetic, so therefore there is no remedy for binge drinking.The disorganization perspective on binge drinking believes that drinking arises when individuals become disoriented by rapid social and societal change or are socialized to behave badly. These drinkers have not yet adopted the mainstream norms of society. Lastly, the critical perspective on binge drinking takes the viewpoint that inequality leads some groups to binge drink out of economic necessity. They drink to deal with their problems concerning financial instability and other various struggles and hardships of life. (Lundquist Lecture January 25).Statistics across the country prove that binge drinking on college cam puses continues to be a growing problem. Linda Degutis, associate professor of emergency medicine at Yale Medical School, believes college drinking has indeed worsened since she began a career in emergency medicines in the early seventies. She states, â€Å"I don’t remember seeing people coming in with the alcohol overdoses the way we do now† (Seaman 113). Additionally, in the fall of 2003 there was an apparent spike in the alcohol-related hospitalizations across the United States.The first two weekends of George Washington University’s first semester saw a doubling of hospitalizations. At Harvard, the number of Undergraduates carried into University Health Services’ ER on Massachusetts Avenue nearly doubled during October and November from the previous year. (114) The movie, Spin the Bottle: An Example of Social Problems at UMass was a homework assignment for Sociology 103 students to watch. This documentary highlights the growing epidemic of drinking on college campuses, and how the media and advertisements also fuel binge drinking.Clips from the popular comedy films American Pie and Roadtrip are featured in Spin the Bottle showing how movies can influence and encourage teen drinking. College students who view these films get the idea that drinking in college is a rite of passage and that it is a social norm of college life. Spin the Bottle also discussed the status of alcohol advertising and how it appeals to the female market by featuring attractive, feminine women in their ads. This only supports and persuades female college students to keep up with the males in drinking at college parties without seeming too masculine.Spin the Bottle uses the sociological imagination to connect to larger societal issues, such as how industries are only looking to make a profit even if their product has negative effects on people and how the environment of college life affects how an individual makes his or her decisions. In particular, UMass A mherst has experienced out of control parties and riots, all stemming from binge drinking. In 2003, an uprising ensued after a Red Sox playoff game, in which 1,000 UMass students overturned cars, set fires, broke into a dining hall, and threw bottles at police.This called for a supposed greater control over binge drinking and partying. However, three years later in October, town police reported to have arrested approximately 200 students since the start school, a third more than the year before (Schweitzer). In May of 2003, a pre-graduation party which consisted of over 1,500 UMass Amherst students turned into an uncontrollable riot. The so-called â€Å"Hobart Hoedown,† held on Hobart Lane, resulted in students throwing broken pieces of rock and beer bottles at passing cars and police officers.The Amherst Fire Department extinguished a number of fires, one of which burned down a PVTA bus stop. In all, forty-five arrests were made and there were fifteen reported injuries among Amherst cops as well as police overtime at the cost of $20,000 (Lyman). More recently, in February 2008, a wild off-campus house party turned into a dangerous, drunken fight. Athletes allegedly attacked other people attending the party with baseball bats, lacrosse sticks, and bottles.In addition around this time, two students were facing attempted murder charges in late-night conflicts in a UMass dormitory, which included an alleged rape and racially charged double stabbing. As expected, it is believed that binge drinking was the cause of these violent attacks and incidents (Schworm). Even this past weekend, ironically labeled â€Å"Blackout Weekend,† at UMass Amherst, twelve students were hospitalized and treated for serious alcohol intoxication at the Turn It Up dance party at the Mullins Center. Three other students who did not need medical attention but were drunk were placed in protective custody by police (DeForge).Clearly, there is an abundance of issues and various o ccurrences stemming from binge drinking at UMass Amherst, and even with increased policing and enforcing of rules, these events continue to happen. UMass Amherst has made considerable efforts in trying to curtail the amount of drinking and partying that goes on in and around campus. In 2006, the university purchased â€Å"Frat Row,† an infamous string of Greek houses on North Pleasant Street, for $2. 5 million and demolished them (Schweitzer). UMass has implemented the So-Called Social Norms Campaign and has the BASICS program to fight binge drinking on campus.At UMass-Amherst, 68% of men and 58% of women report drinking five or more drinks in a row at least once in the past two weeks, according to the latest surveys. Both of these figures are well above the national average; however they do represent progress from years past. Since 2003, overall binge drinking has dropped 26%, and frequent heavy drinking is down 38% (Schworm). Thus, it is clear UMass has recognized binge dri nking as a social problem on campus and is working on ways of trying to reduce it, although it still remains a significant issue.Ultimately, binge drinking is an extensive social problem that exists on college campuses across America and startling statistics back up the huge numbers of students that are affected by drinking. Serious health problems, physical and sexual abuse, injuries, and poor grades are all penalties resulting from partaking in the risky behavior of binge drinking. There are various influences and reasons that encourage students to drink heavily, including peer pressure, academic and relationship stress, believing it is an accepted culture of college, and drinking to get drunk.UMass in particular has experienced violence, property damage, and student injuries and deaths as a result of binge drinking. The university has recognized the problem and is being proactive about trying to reduce the amount of binge drinking on campus. Clearly, binge drinking is problem of epidemic proportions that is greatly affecting colleges in negative ways, and without actions and solutions to curb dangerous student behavior the issue will only continue to deteriorate campuses and the students themselves.

Free Essays on Working As A Teen

Putting objects into bags for other people and getting paid for it doesn’t sound like such a bad job. I mean, it doesn’t take much effort, and for a first job, it sounds like a good deal. Unfortunately, it just â€Å"sounds† like it. Bagging groceries has to be one of the most irritable jobs. After working at Winn Dixie for a year, I hope I never have to go back, at least not to work. And guess who are the main contributors of such frustration: the customers. They all seem to have different attitudes and feelings towards how their groceries are bagged. Some aren’t much of a bother and are just there to get their groceries and leave. Others seem to have stronger feelings towards my work and want more personalized service. The worst kind are the customers who demand a fully customized job and do everything possible to make those ten minutes of work a living hell. The first type of Winn Dixie customer is actually quite pleasant. Their objective is to just buy and leave, and not to worry about how their gallon of milk is bagged alone and in a double paper bag so that their car doesn’t get wet. This customer is always obvious. They’re usually the more social ones, and are sure to at least say â€Å"thank you† for the job. Sometimes, I might even get some help and they will come around, get a bag and share in the bagging experience along with conversation. Customers like these never complain and just leave it up to the employee’s training and common sense. They naturally expect a good job. The more caring, but bothersome type seems to show more concern. They don’t expect a good job as much as the â€Å"buy and leave† type, but want a good job and feel that only if they make suggestions and sometimes insult the employee’s intelligence, they will get just that. The main complaint that this person gives deals with the bread. Usually they want the bread completely alone, in its own bag, on top of everything.... Free Essays on Working As A Teen Free Essays on Working As A Teen Putting objects into bags for other people and getting paid for it doesn’t sound like such a bad job. I mean, it doesn’t take much effort, and for a first job, it sounds like a good deal. Unfortunately, it just â€Å"sounds† like it. Bagging groceries has to be one of the most irritable jobs. After working at Winn Dixie for a year, I hope I never have to go back, at least not to work. And guess who are the main contributors of such frustration: the customers. They all seem to have different attitudes and feelings towards how their groceries are bagged. Some aren’t much of a bother and are just there to get their groceries and leave. Others seem to have stronger feelings towards my work and want more personalized service. The worst kind are the customers who demand a fully customized job and do everything possible to make those ten minutes of work a living hell. The first type of Winn Dixie customer is actually quite pleasant. Their objective is to just buy and leave, and not to worry about how their gallon of milk is bagged alone and in a double paper bag so that their car doesn’t get wet. This customer is always obvious. They’re usually the more social ones, and are sure to at least say â€Å"thank you† for the job. Sometimes, I might even get some help and they will come around, get a bag and share in the bagging experience along with conversation. Customers like these never complain and just leave it up to the employee’s training and common sense. They naturally expect a good job. The more caring, but bothersome type seems to show more concern. They don’t expect a good job as much as the â€Å"buy and leave† type, but want a good job and feel that only if they make suggestions and sometimes insult the employee’s intelligence, they will get just that. The main complaint that this person gives deals with the bread. Usually they want the bread completely alone, in its own bag, on top of everything....

RIGOBERTA MENCHU essays

RIGOBERTA MENCHU essays In recent years, a new voice has been added to the world stage. It is the voice of Latin American women. Long oppressed both by their culture and their governments, these voices have risen in protest against the inequalities and injustices that have plagued their lives. The most notable example of this new genre to emerge thus far was published in 1992 and subsequently won the Nobel Peace prize for its author, Rigoberta Menchu, a Guatemalan Indian activist. Menchu's account of life in Guatemala is a tale of horror and savagery perpetrated on all those who would dare to try to improve the lives of Guatemala's downtrodden. For the "crimes" of teaching people how to read, organizing labor, or even protesting despicable conditions, people are routinely tortured in ways that rival the Spanish Inquisition. After continuous, unbelievable torture in which he was maimed beyond belief, Menchu recounts that she watched while soldiers burned her younger brother alive (177). He was sixteen and the excuse offered for this treatment was that he was a communist. Americans like to think of themselves as the "good guys" to the country that beat Hitler, rebuilt post-World War II Europe with the Marshall Plan, and won the Cold War so that the world would be safe from tyranny of communism. What most Americans don't know even today is that there is an excellent statistical chance that the men who tortured and brutally murdered Menchu's brother learned these hideous skills in the United States. The U.S. government actually runs a school just for this purpose at Fort Benning, Georgia, the infamous School of the Americas. Publicly, the School is supposed to promote the education of Latin American leaders in the principles of democracy. It's hard for many Americans to believe that their country, which was built on the principles of liberty and justice, would engage in the activities that have been alleged by the ...

Mankind is Causing Global Warming Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Mankind is Causing Global Warming - Essay Example . In fact, 25% to 30% of the greenhouse gas that is released into the atmosphere every year is 1.6 billion tonnes which is due to deforestation. According to Daniel Howden, (2007) "In the next 24 hours, deforestation will release as much CO2 into the atmosphere as 8 million people flying from London to New York. Stopping the loggers is the fastest and cheapest solution to climate change. So why are global leaders turning a blind eye to this crisis" The rapid destruction of the rainforests which forms a valuable cooling band in the region of the Earth's equator is one of the main causes of climate change. Carbon expelling due to deforestation far surpass damage induced by planes and automobiles and factories. Water vapour is the most widespread and most potent greenhouse gas on the planet. It increases as a result of warming induced by carbon dioxide, methane and other greenhouse gases. "Because the air is warmer, the relative humidity can be higher (in essence, the air is able to 'hold' more water when its warmer), leading to more water vapor in the atmosphere" (http://lwf.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/gases.html, accessed on 29th April, 2009). Water vapour holds on around 2/3rd of the heat pinned by all the greenhouse gases (L.R.Kump, 2002) due to which global climate change has occurred. Meth Methane, a natural gas is the 2nd most vital of the greenhouse gases ensuing from human actions. It is formed by rice cultivation, cattle and sheep farming, and by decomposing material in lowlands. Methane is also let out during coal removal and oil drilling, and by permeable gas pipelines. Human actions have enhanced the density of methane in the atmosphere to around 145% above to the quantity that is present naturally. (http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/04.html,1997, retrieved on 29th April 2009) Carbon dioxide emitted by vehicles is also a reason for global warming. According to the US Emissions Inventory 2006 page 8 vehicles which have poor gas mileage add the most to global warming. For instance, according to the E.P.A's 2000 Fuel Economy Guide, a new Dodge Durango sports utility vehicle which gives 12 miles per gallon in the city will emit an approximate 800 pounds of carbon dioxide above a distance of 500 city miles. But if a large vehicle is used like the SUV's then due to their narrow wheel base they are 4 times as liable as cars to overturn in an accident (Keith Bradsher, Article appearing in the San Francisco Chronicle, December 12, 1997 originating in the New York Times). Another principal man-made ground of Global Warming is population. More people lead to more food, and more modes of transportation. This only means more 3 Methane as there will be increased amount of burning of fossil fuels, and more agriculture. The main source of methane is manure. Because more food is demanded more food has to be raised. Animals like cows are a resource of food which leads to increase in manure and methane. Yet another issue with increasing population is transportation. Increased number of people means more cars, and more cars means more pollution. (http://library. thinkquest.org/J003411/causes.htm, retrieved on 29th April 2009). The permafrost sheet has begun to melt due to human activities. Alaskan permafrost has apparently warmed up by a mean of 1.5C over the past 15 years. (Osterkamp, 2000,

Learning, Training and Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Learning, Training and Development - Essay Example The paper describes individual learning. The individual gains personal growth which he/she uses to enhance performance and develop career. Sadler-Smith identifies various theories that underpin learning at an individual level. These consist of: cognitive, behaviourist, social learning, and situated learning theories. The cognitive theory implies that an individual acquires knowledge and problem solving skills that he/she transfers to new everyday jobs through mental processes. The behaviourist theory by Ivan Pavlov, Skinner and J.B Watson views learning as a reaction to stimuli and individuals differ in their rate of learning. The social learning theory by Bandura emphasizes learning through experience since individuals cannot rely on their own actions only. They learn by observing others and only demonstrate the learned behaviour when they expect a reward. Harri-Augstein and Thomas disagree that learning is ‘a conversational construction, reconstruction and exchange of persona lly significant, relevant and viable meanings with awareness and controlled purpossiveness’. The language of dialogue used in the conversation is in form of internal thought processes and external processes of communication with others which leads to purposeful enquiry and change in mental models. The role of training practitioners is therefore to facilitate the process of dialogue and enquiry. Group learning occurs as a result of collective individual learning. ... The behaviourist theory by Ivan Pavlov, Skinner and J.B Watson views learning as a reaction to stimuli and individuals differ in their rate of learning. The social learning theory by Bandura emphasizes learning through experience since individuals cannot rely on their own actions only. They learn by observing others and only display the learned behaviour when they expect a reward. Harri-Augstein and Thomas (1991) argue that learning is ‘a conversational construction, reconstruction and exchange of personally significant, relevant and viable meanings with awareness and controlled purpossiveness’ (329). The language of dialogue used in the conversation is in form of internal thought processes and external processes of communication with others which leads to purposeful enquiry and change in mental models. The role of training practitioners is therefore to facilitate the process of dialogue and enquiry. Group (Team) Learning Group learning occurs as a result of collective i ndividual learning. Sadler-Smith (2006) argues that learning takes place within a social framework of participation hence the need to learn as a group and work collectively to achieve a common objective. Since, employees learn from each other in the group, the group should comprise of individuals with different skills and are willing to share knowledge with other members (Fenwick, 2008). The teams should be committed, collaborative, and have good communication skills. However, the management has the role to keep the groups motivated so as to gain commitment and success by giving feedback, recognizing and rewarding performance and letting the group formulate its objectives.

Spss statistical analysis Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Spss statistical analysis - Term Paper Example The quality of a lecture is measured on the ordinal scale from 1 to 100. The t-test is used for repeated measurements (Field 2009). There are two pairs of no aids-few aids and few aids-many aids and the paired t-test is performed on both of them. With the significant values of 0.006 and 0.000, both are smaller the cut off value of 0.05 the paired t-test showed that two all samples can be considered to have identical mean. In addition, lecture with few visual aids and many visual aids demonstrated significant correlation. The paired t-test revealed that there is no significant difference in the mean value of lecture quality depending on the amount of visual aids. It indicated that for all three cases an identical mean can be considered. The post hoc Tukey HSD indicates significant difference between groups of people training 6 and 12 weeks and between 6 weeks and 24 weeks. The 12 and 24 weeks groups did not show significant differences. The between-subject variable is the main sport of the participant which is defined in the first column. There are many ways to perform analysis of sport related statistical data (Williams & Wragg, 2004). This dataset contains two possible sport disciplines represented in this dataset. Independent samples test is an adequate research tool for this

Letter of motivation to a Prospective Employer Essay

Letter of motivation to a Prospective Employer - Essay Example I did the following courses during my studies for the Bachelor’s of Science Degree in Criminal Justice and Administration: Contemporary issues in Criminal Justice, Criminology, Policing Theory and Practice, Criminal Law, Interpersonal Communication, Institutional and Communication, Institutional and Community Corrections, Criminal Procedure, Criminal Court Systems, Criminal Organizations, Juvenile Justice Systems and Process, Ethics in Criminal Justice, Cultural Diversity in Criminal Justice, Research Methods in Criminal Justice, Organizational Behaviour and Management, Criminal Justice Administration, Foundations of Criminal Justice, Criminal Justice Policy Analysis, Managing Criminal Justice Personnel, Futures of Criminal Justice, and Interdisciplinary Capstone Course. All these courses are specially designed to equip the student with the knowledge and skills required in dealing with managerial as well as leadership aspects that are related to the operations of the criminal justice agencies. The courses offer a strong foundation of theoretical knowledge that can be transformed into real life practice in the profession of criminal justice. It is my strong conviction that the knowledge I have gained in the field of Criminal justice have greatly enhanced my managerial and administrative skills that are closely related to law enforcement, the criminal courts and corrections. My degree program is designed to offer the students with a strong background in criminal justice principles, theories as well as concepts that are related to justice administration. All the courses I have taken are designed to fulfil the core aspects of criminal justice as portrayed in the domains of courts, police services as well as corrections. The programme offers a global perspective to the realm of criminal justice and it fulfils various management functions that can improve the operations of various managerial departments in related agencies that deal with criminal justice. The courses I took will greatly help me in my profession since I am better positioned to approach any situation with self determination as a result of the valuable theoretical knowledge I gained in each course and I can transform it into real practice. Basically, the BSCJA programme is designed to fulfil various goals and these were fulfilled both in theory and in practice through practical lessons by my tutors who are serving members of the justice system. My professors teach from a practical stand point and this curriculum is designed to equip the student with the much needed practical experience in this particular field where he is given the opportunity to transform the theoretical knowledge gained into real practice. As such, I believe I have the following competencies that can positively contribute to the overall performance of the organization as a whole. I have good communication skills and can communicate both verbally and written at all levels. The valuable knowledge I have gai ned in this particular discipline have developed my style of systematic, creative and logical thinking. I can diligently approach any given scenario and I can find solutions to

Who is profiling for Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Who is profiling for - Essay Example In â€Å"The Violent Kid Profile,† Mary Lord claims that the new method being used to detect violence from unpredictable students will take over the student dignity of millions of students at school. She feels profiling is wrong and is a form of offender, and she also believes that it goes against the Bill of Rights as well. Thus, some students unintentionally suffer the profiling they have no control over. In general, I agree with Mary Lord who claims that profiling has negative effects on students at high school. Those negative impacts are further discussed in this paper with specific reference to Mary Lord’s article â€Å"The Violent Kid Profile†. However, the paper does not aim to provide biased information but is designed to present both positives and negatives of profiling. One of the most crucial criticisms against profiling involves the uncertainty about the causes of the problem behavior that a teenager demonstrates. This is the weakness of profiling that it lacks exposing the actual reason behind a problem behavior and accepts the behavior as an intentional, violent act. The fact that the profiled actions might just be the similar actions performed by other teenagers in the same situation and with the same capacity is ignored! Certain actions are logical to be expected on the basis of reasonableness and situation. Lord points out that some profiles apply equivocal standards to evaluate students behaviors and provide vague standards to include students in the list of those having problems, anxiety abd related issues. She quotes Kevin Dwyer president of the National Association of school Psychologists, who describes some of these profiled behaviors as, â€Å"Listens to songs that promote violence... Appears to be an average student....Isolated... Dr ess sloppily† (Para 6). The behaviors mentioned by Kevin Dwyer are too normal to be observed in the new generation. Therefore, adding such standards to

A conversation with my father by grace paley Essay

A conversation with my father by grace paley - Essay Example The entire story is based on the relationship of the two main characters in the story, the writer daughter and her father. The story begins with the father in the center stage and the daughter a mere follower of his directions. As the story progresses, the limelight slowly shifts on to the daughter who creates a story that is impactful and apparently tragic. All through the story, the father and daughter duo share a healthy, communicative, expressive, and genuine relationship as two admirers of life, society, writing, and literature. The father has the air of superiority in his voice since he is considers himself more knowledgeable and a well read fan of literature in Russian and English. This is evident from his tone at: â€Å"With you it’s all a joke,† (Paley, 1994, p.233) The daughter has a more kind and considerate outlook towards the father as her affection towards him forces her to write the same story twice. It is evident from her tone at, â€Å"His heart, that bloody motor, is equally old and will not do certain jobs anymore†¦..†Yes, Why not? That’s possible.† I want to please him.† (Paley, 1994, p.232) She however, dons a corrective role when her father gets cynical about the tragic ending that men and women in society face. She defines her confidence, free-spirited nature and positivity by turning the story into a happy and well meant ending. Overall, it is a good and healthy relationship that the two main protagonists in this story share. To achieve these goals, she has used two stories in between the main story. Her conversation with her father is one story, her simple depiction of a neighbor woman another, and her detailed depiction of the same woman is the third story. While the second and third stories are the same, they are created with an emphasis on writing styles which in the first one was tragic and negative and in the second one was humorous and

Letter of motivation to a Prospective Employer Essay

Letter of motivation to a Prospective Employer - Essay Example I did the following courses during my studies for the Bachelor’s of Science Degree in Criminal Justice and Administration: Contemporary issues in Criminal Justice, Criminology, Policing Theory and Practice, Criminal Law, Interpersonal Communication, Institutional and Communication, Institutional and Community Corrections, Criminal Procedure, Criminal Court Systems, Criminal Organizations, Juvenile Justice Systems and Process, Ethics in Criminal Justice, Cultural Diversity in Criminal Justice, Research Methods in Criminal Justice, Organizational Behaviour and Management, Criminal Justice Administration, Foundations of Criminal Justice, Criminal Justice Policy Analysis, Managing Criminal Justice Personnel, Futures of Criminal Justice, and Interdisciplinary Capstone Course. All these courses are specially designed to equip the student with the knowledge and skills required in dealing with managerial as well as leadership aspects that are related to the operations of the criminal justice agencies. The courses offer a strong foundation of theoretical knowledge that can be transformed into real life practice in the profession of criminal justice. It is my strong conviction that the knowledge I have gained in the field of Criminal justice have greatly enhanced my managerial and administrative skills that are closely related to law enforcement, the criminal courts and corrections. My degree program is designed to offer the students with a strong background in criminal justice principles, theories as well as concepts that are related to justice administration. All the courses I have taken are designed to fulfil the core aspects of criminal justice as portrayed in the domains of courts, police services as well as corrections. The programme offers a global perspective to the realm of criminal justice and it fulfils various management functions that can improve the operations of various managerial departments in related agencies that deal with criminal justice. The courses I took will greatly help me in my profession since I am better positioned to approach any situation with self determination as a result of the valuable theoretical knowledge I gained in each course and I can transform it into real practice. Basically, the BSCJA programme is designed to fulfil various goals and these were fulfilled both in theory and in practice through practical lessons by my tutors who are serving members of the justice system. My professors teach from a practical stand point and this curriculum is designed to equip the student with the much needed practical experience in this particular field where he is given the opportunity to transform the theoretical knowledge gained into real practice. As such, I believe I have the following competencies that can positively contribute to the overall performance of the organization as a whole. I have good communication skills and can communicate both verbally and written at all levels. The valuable knowledge I have gai ned in this particular discipline have developed my style of systematic, creative and logical thinking. I can diligently approach any given scenario and I can find solutions to

A conversation with my father by grace paley Essay

A conversation with my father by grace paley - Essay Example The entire story is based on the relationship of the two main characters in the story, the writer daughter and her father. The story begins with the father in the center stage and the daughter a mere follower of his directions. As the story progresses, the limelight slowly shifts on to the daughter who creates a story that is impactful and apparently tragic. All through the story, the father and daughter duo share a healthy, communicative, expressive, and genuine relationship as two admirers of life, society, writing, and literature. The father has the air of superiority in his voice since he is considers himself more knowledgeable and a well read fan of literature in Russian and English. This is evident from his tone at: â€Å"With you it’s all a joke,† (Paley, 1994, p.233) The daughter has a more kind and considerate outlook towards the father as her affection towards him forces her to write the same story twice. It is evident from her tone at, â€Å"His heart, that bloody motor, is equally old and will not do certain jobs anymore†¦..†Yes, Why not? That’s possible.† I want to please him.† (Paley, 1994, p.232) She however, dons a corrective role when her father gets cynical about the tragic ending that men and women in society face. She defines her confidence, free-spirited nature and positivity by turning the story into a happy and well meant ending. Overall, it is a good and healthy relationship that the two main protagonists in this story share. To achieve these goals, she has used two stories in between the main story. Her conversation with her father is one story, her simple depiction of a neighbor woman another, and her detailed depiction of the same woman is the third story. While the second and third stories are the same, they are created with an emphasis on writing styles which in the first one was tragic and negative and in the second one was humorous and

Extreme Poverty and the Rights of the Poor Essay Example for Free

Extreme Poverty and the Rights of the Poor Essay Extreme poverty and the rights of the poor has been a high priority of the UN ever since its creation, yet this dilemma are still happening in many underdeveloped and developing countries. To eliminate this problem, public awareness and a genuine cooperation in the global community is required. Extreme poverty and rights of the poor goes hand in hand, because in many third world and developing nations, poor people have no rights. France encourages nations to genuinely cooperate to increase the awareness of the issue and to abolish habits of â€Å"ignoring poverty and the rights of the poor. † The eradication of poverty must begin by providing help to those most affected by the problem. The poor and uneducated makes up the majority of those without any rights, they lack access to the fastest way of escaping poverty, education; therefore, they rarely ever have a voice in their communities. France is well aware that efforts have been made to fight poverty in many regions simultaneously, including Africa, Central and South America, and the Middle East. France strongly believes that the most essential step the UN should take in order to solve this problem is to encourage all nations to provide free education to everyone. In order to reduce poverty and guarantee rights to the poor, free education must be made available to everyone, especially to those that cannot afford it. If this is achieved, people most definitely are able to have a bigger and better access to economic opportunities, a major factor in escaping poverty. In France, it is required for children from the age of 6-16 to attend school. After ninth grade, students can choose whether or not to pursue a higher education, such as high school and college, if not, they can be admitted to a technical school, then graduate from such school and have a professional career. France believe that based on the high efficiency of this method, the UN should carry out similar actions to a global scale by encouraging nations to adopt the same principle. In conclusion, France strongly believes nations must genuinely cooperate effectively in order to reduce poverty and guarantee rights to the poor. The source of this problem is believed to be the lack of access to education due to poverty. Providing free education must be the first step nations should take in order to bring an end to this problem.

The Fundamental Theory Of Supply And Demand Economics Essay

The Fundamental Theory Of Supply And Demand Economics Essay The theory of supply and demand is perhaps one of the most fundamental concepts of economics and it is the backbone of a market economy. The supply and demand model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability and consumer demand. Since contemporary economies rely on the market forces of supply and demand instead of government forces to distribute goods and services there must be a method for determining who gets the products that are produced. This is where supply and demand begin to work. By themselves the laws of supply and demand give us basic information, but when working together they are the key to distribution in a market economy. It is not enough for a buyer to want or desire an item. He or she must show the ability to pay and then the willingness to pay. So, demand is comprised of three things: Desire; Ability to pay; Willingness to pay. What factors alter a consumers desire, willingness and ability to pay for products? Some factors include consumers income and tastes, the prices and availability of related products like substitutes or complementary goods, and the items usefulness. Substitutes are goods that satisfy similar needs and which are normally consumed in place of each other. As the price of one substitute declines, demand for the other substitute will decrease. Butter and margarine are close substitutes. If the price of butter goes up, then people will tend to substitute margarine for butter. Complementary goods are those that are normally consumed together (e.g., DVD players and DVD movies). An increase in the price of a product will diminish demand for its complement while a decrease in the price of a product will increase demand for its complement. Think of the items usefulness this way. It is a hot summer day and you are gasping for a drink*. You come across a lemonade stand and gulp down a glass*. It tasted great so you want another. This second glass is marginal utility meaning an extra satisfaction a consumer gets by purchasing one more unit of a product. But now you reach for a third glass. Suddenly your stomach is bloated and you are feeling sick. Thats diminishing marginal utility! The law of diminishing marginal utility says that the more units one buys the less eager one is to buy more. In economics, demand is peoples desire, willingness and ability to purchase particular amounts of goods or services at certain prices in a given period of time. To the economists consumers make rational choices about how much to buy and how to spend their income on the products that will give them the greatest satisfaction at the least cost. So, demand describes the behavior of buyers. The law of demand states that the higher the price of a product, the fewer people will demand that product, that is, demand for a product varies inversely with its price, all other factors remaining equal*. Factors other than a goods price which affect the amount consumers are willing to buy are called the non-price determinants of demand. The law of demand expresses the relationship between prices and the quantity of goods and services that would be purchased at each and every price. In other words, the higher the price of a product, the lower the quantity demanded. Economists like to look at things graphically. A demand schedule is a table showing the number of units of a product that would be purchased at various prices during a given period of time. The information presented in a graphic form is called a demand curve. It shows an inverse relationship between the price and the quantity demanded. The demand curve represents the quantities of a product or service which consumers are willing and able to buy at various prices, all non-price factors being equal. The demand curve slopes downward from left to right based on the law of demand. Or to put it another way, a demand curve shows that the quantity demanded is greater at a lower price and lower at a higher price. The advantage of the curve is that it enables economists to see the relation between price and quantity demanded and to calculate approximately what the demand would be for those prices falling in between the prices that are in the demand schedule. Each point along the curve represents a different price-quantity combination. Demand schedule for cut jeans Price The quantity demanded $400 200 $350 500 $300 800 $225 1200 $175 1600 $100 2400 $50 3000 Increased demand can be represented on the graph as the curve being shifted to the right, because at each price, a greater quantity is demanded. An example of this would be more people suddenly wanting more cut jeans. On the other hand, if the demand decreases, the opposite happens. Decreased demand can be represented on the graph as the curve being shifted to the left, because at each price the quantity demanded is less. It means that fewer people want to buy cut jeans. The key point is to distinguish between demand and the quantity demanded. Demand refers to how much of a product or service is desired by buyers. The quantity demanded is the amount of a product that people are willing to buy at a certain price. The difference is subtle but important. If the demand of ice cream goes up in summer it is because consumptive demand has truly increased, clearly it is hot. In this case the business can most likely raise prices without suffering a cut in sales. This is a change in the quantity demanded. In winter the business incurs a sales fall at the same price. The only way out of increasing sales is to reduce the price. As a result of a price cut the increased sales of ice cream means that consumer demand has artificially been manipulated. In reality, actual demand is low but extra efforts have to be made to increase sales. This leads to a change in demand. Economists distinguish two different ways that the quantity of purchases of a product can change. According to the law of demand a change in price leads to a movement along the original demand curve and results in a change in the quantity demanded, that is, more will be purchased but only at a lower price. When one of the non-price factors changes (e.g., a change in income) there will be a change in demand. This change causes a shift of the demand curve either outward or inward in response to a change in a condition other than the goods price. It means that more or less will be purchased at the same price. All of the non-price determinants (changes in the size of the market, income for the average consumer, population size, the prices and availability of related goods, consumer preferences) are directly related to consumers. In other words, at any given price, consumers will be willing and able to purchase either more or less. Lets take a look at an effect a change in consumer preferences or desire for a particular product leads to. On the one hand, if a product like cut jeans becomes the latest fashion fad, demand at any given price will be increased and the demand curve shifts out. On the other hand, if there is a decline in the size of the market or a product becomes unfashionable then the demand curve shifts in. Thus, the only thing that can change the quantity demanded is a change in the market price, all other things remaining the same. While a change in demand results from changes of any of the non-price determinants, the goods price being equal. To understand better the theory of supply and demand it is necessary to know how much buyers and sellers respond to price changes. This responsiveness is called elasticity. Elasticity varies among products because some products may be more essential to the consumer. A good or service is considered to be highly elastic if a slight change in price leads to a sharp change in the quantity demanded. A price increase of a product or service that isnt considered a necessity will discourage more consumers to buy the product or service. On the other hand, an inelastic good or service is one in which changes in price bring about only modest changes in the quantity demanded, if any at all. Products that are necessities are more insensitive to price changes because consumers will continue buying these products despite a price rise. It is known as the price elasticity of demand. In economics, the price elasticity of demand is an elasticity that measures the nature and degree of the relationship between changes in the quantity demanded of a commodity and changes in its price. One typical application of the concept of elasticity is to consider what happens to consumer demand for a product when prices increase. As the price of a product rises, consumers will usually demand less of that product, perhaps by consuming less, substituting another product for it, and so on. The greater the extent to which demand falls as price rises, the greater the price elasticity of demand is. Demand is called elastic if a small change in price has a relatively large effect on the quantity demanded. The number and quality of substitutes for a product are the basic influence on price elasticity of demand. If the prices of substitutes remain the same, a rise in the products price will discourage consumers from buying this product. On the other hand, if there is a price cut in the product, consumers will substitute other items for this product. Thus, the demand for this product tends to be elastic. In general, demand is elastic for non-essential commodities (visits to theatres or concerts, holidays, parties, etc.) However, there are some goods that consumers cannot consume less of, and cannot find substitutes for even if prices rise. Some goods and services that are necessities, relatively inexpensive and difficult to find substitutes are said to have inelastic demand. To put it another way, a change in price results in a relatively small effect on the quantity demanded. The elasticity of demand also deals with the effect of a price change on the sellers total revenue, that is the amount paid by the buyers and received by the sellers of products. When the price elasticity of demand for a product is elastic, the percentage change in quantity is greater than the percentage change in price. Hence*, when the price is raised, the total revenue of producers falls, and the total revenue of producers rises, when the price is decreased. When the price elasticity of demand for a product is inelastic, the percentage change in quantity is smaller than the percentage change in price. Therefore, when the price is raised, the total revenue of producers rises and the total revenue of producers decreases, when there is a goods price fall. COMMENTS: to gasp for a drink à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ²Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ´ Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ³Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸; to gulp down a glass à Ã‚ ¶Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ±Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾/à Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ¹; all other factors remaining equal à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ° уà Ã‚ ¼Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ², ц°Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾ уÑ Ãƒâ€˜- Ñ-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã‹â€ Ãƒâ€˜- Ñ„Ã Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã‹â€ Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã… ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’Ñ Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚  à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸; hence à Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¶Ãƒ Ã‚ µ, à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ´Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸, à Ã‚ ² Ñâ‚ ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’Ñ‚Ã Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜-. Exercise 1. Read, translate into Ukrainian in writing and memorize the following economic terms and concepts. Complementary goods: the two goods tend to be consumed or used together in relatively fixed or standardized proportions. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Demand curve: the graphical representation of how demand for something varies in relation to its price. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Demand schedule: a table showing the quantities of a product that would be purchased at various prices at a given time. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Demand: the level of a consumers willingness, ability and desire or need that exist for particular goods or services. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Diminishing marginal utility: each successive increase in consumption of a product or service provides less additional enjoyment or usefulness than the previous one. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Elastic demand: Demand for which a small change in price results in a large change in demand. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Elasticity: An economic concept which is concerned with a shift in either demand for or supply of an economic product as the result of a change in a products price. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Inelastic demand: Demand for which a large change in price leads to only a small change in demand. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Law of demand: the economic law that states that demand for a product varies inversely with its price. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Law of diminishing marginal utility: the economic law that states that for a single consumer the marginal utility of a commodity diminishes for each additional unit of the commodity consumed. __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Marginal utility: the additional satisfaction a consumer gains from consuming one more unit of a good or service. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Price elasticity of demand: The degree to which demand for a commodity responds to a change in the price of this commodity. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Substitute: a product or service that partly satisfies the need of a consumer that another product or service fulfills. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Utility: an economic term referring to the total satisfaction received from consuming a good or service. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ TEXT Transactions require both buyers and sellers. Thus, demand is only one aspect of decisions about prices and the amounts of goods traded, supply is the other. So, supply is one of the two key determinants of price. The theory of supply explains the mechanisms by which prices and levels of production are set. Unlike demand, supply describes the behavior of sellers. In economics, supply relates to the quantity of goods or services that a producer or a supplier is willing to bring into the market (à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ² à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¶) at a particular price in a given time period, all other things being equal. The law of supply states that the quantity of a commodity supplied (Ñ‚Ã Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬, Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ¹ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’Ñ Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ ) varies directly with its price, all other factors that may determine supply remaining the same. The law of supply expresses the relationship between prices and the quantity of goods and services that sellers would offer for sale (à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¶) at each and every price. In other words, the higher the price of a product, the higher the quantity supplied. As the price of a commodity increases relative to price of all other goods, business enterprises switch resources and production from other goods to production of this commodity, increasing the quantity supplied. Clearly the law of supply is the opposite of the law of demand. Consumers want to pay as little as they can. They will buy more when there is a price decrease in the market. Sellers, on the other hand, want to charge as much as they can. They will be willing to make more and sell more as the price goes up. In this way they can maximize profits. (à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾ à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ±Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’шуà Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ±Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¸) The relationship between price of a product and its quantity supplied is represented in a table called a supply schedule. The supply curve is a graphic representation of the market supply schedule and the law of supply. The supply curve shows a direct relationship (à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ¹Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ¶Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’) between the quantities of products that firms are willing to produce and sell at various prices, all non-price factors (à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒâ€˜- Ñ„Ã Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸) being constant. The supply curve slopes upward from left to right based on the law of supply. Producers supply more at a higher price because selling a larger quantity at a higher price increases their revenue. Supply schedule for cut jeans Price The quantity supplied $400 3000 $350 2400 $300 1600 $225 1200 $175 800 $100 500 $50 200 The supply curve enables producers to anticipate (à Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ¼Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¶Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’ à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ±Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ ±Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸) what the supply would be for those prices falling in between the prices that are in the supply schedule. Each point along the curve represents a different price-quantity combination, or to put it another way, a direct correlation between the quantities supplied and price. Like a movement along the demand curve, a movement along the supply curve will occur when a price change leads to a change in the quantity supplied (à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ-), that is, more will be offered for sale but only at a higher price or vice versa. Like a shift in the demand curve, a shift in the supply curve to the right or to the left means that the quantity supplied is affected by a factor other than a products price. (Ñ„Ã Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬ Ñ-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã‹â€ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ¹ à Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ¶ ц Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ° Ñ‚Ã Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™) People often confuse supply with the quantity supplied. The difference between supply and quantity supplied is that Supply represents the amounts of items that suppliers are willing and able to offer for sale at different prices at a particular time and place, all non-price determinants being equal. The quantity supplied refers to the amount of a certain product producers are willing to supply at a certain price (à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã… ½ ц Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã… ½). A change in the price of the product will cause a change in the quantity supplied. Price is an important determinant of the quantities supplied. The law of supply states that the amount offered for sale rises, as the price is higher. The quantity of pairs of cut jeans producers are willing to offer for sale rises, since their price is higher primarily because they need to cover the increased costs of production. (à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ±Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’шà Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜- à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ±Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒâ€˜- à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸) Thus, according to the law of supply a change in price leads to a movement along the original supply curve and results in a change in the quantity supplied. On the one hand, an upward movement along the curve (Ñâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ уà Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¶ à Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜- Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ¹ уà Ã‚ ³Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™) represents an increase in the quantity supplied as the price is raised. On the other hand, a downward movement along the curve shows a decrease in the quantity supplied as a result of a price reduction. When one of the factors other than a products price changes (e.g., a change in technology) there will be a change in supply. Economists use the term supply to refer to the original supply curve. An increase in supply is reflected by a shift of the supply curve to the right. It means that at the same price, sellers are willing to supply more than they were willing to supply before (à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ±Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ³Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒâ€˜- à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ Ñâ‚ ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜-шà Ã‚ µ). A decrease in supply is represented by a shift of the original supply curve to the left. It means that at any given price, producers are willing to supply less than they were willing to supply before. However, there are things other than price which affect the amounts of goods and services suppliers are able to bring into the market. These things are called the non-price determinants of supply. As it has been mentioned a change in the quantity supplied caused only by a change in the price of the product. A change in supply is caused by a change in the non-price determinants of supply. Based on a new supply schedule (à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ · à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜- шà Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ-), the supply curve moves inward or outward since the prices stay the same and only the quantities supplied change. Non-price determinants of supply are: Changes in the cost of production. Production costs relate to the labour costs and other costs of doing business (à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ- à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °) used in production process. The cost of production is probably one of the most important influences on production process. An increase in the costs of any input brings about the lower output, which means that the supply curve will shift inward. Regardless of the price that a firm can charge for its product, price must exceed costs (à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸) to make a profit. Thus, the supply decision (Ñâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ€˜-шà Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚  ц°Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ-) is a decision in response to changes in the cost of production. Changes in technology. Changes in technology usually result in improved productivity. Improved technology decreases production costs and therefore increases supply. Changes in the price of resources needed to produce goods and services. If the price of a resource used to produce the product increases, this will increase the production costs and the producer will no longer be willing to offer the same quantity at the same price. He will want to charge a higher price to cover the higher costs. As a result the supply curve will shift inward. Changes in the expectations of future prices. Changes in producers expectations about the future price can cause a change in the current supply (Ñ-Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒâ€˜Ã… ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ ) of products. If producers anticipate a price rise in the future, they may prefer to store their products today and sell them later. As a result, the current supply of a particular product will decrease. In this case a supply curve will shift to the left. It is necessary to keep in mind that supply is not the quantity available for sale. (à Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’à Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜-Ñ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’, Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ° ц à Ã‚ ² à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜- à Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚  à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¶Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™) Changes in the profit opportunities. If a business firm produces more than one product, a change in the price of one product can change the supply of another product. For example, automobile manufacturers can produce both small and large cars. If the price of small cars rises, the producers will produce more small cars to earn higher profits. They will shift the resources of the plant from the production of large cars to the production of small ones. Therefore, the supply of small cars will increase and a supply curve will shift outward. So, profit opportunities encourage producers to produce those goods that have high prices. Changes in the number of suppliers in the market. Potential producers are producers who can produce a product but dont do it because of relatively low price. If price of a product rises potential suppliers will switch over production to that product to make more profit. If more producers enter a market, the supply will increase, shifting the supply curve to the right. Making a summary it is necessary to emphasize that the understanding of concepts of supply and demand provides an explanation of how prices are determined in competitive markets. (à Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ¹ Ñâ‚ ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ º) An important concept in understanding supply and demand theories is elasticity. Comprehension of elasticity (Ñâ‚ ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚  à Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜-) is useful to understand the response of supply to changes in consumer demand in order to achieve an expected result or avoid unforeseen consequences (уà Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ ±Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ²). For example, an entrepreneur expecting a price increase might find that* it lowers the profits if demand is highly elastic, as sales would fall sharply. Similarly, a business reckoning on a price cut might find that* it does not increase sales, if demand for the product is inelastic. In economics, the price elasticity of supply is the degree of proportionality with which the amount of a commodity offered for sale changes in response to a given change in the going price. In other words elasticity of supply is a measure of how much the quantity supplied of a particular product responds to a change in the price of that product. Elasticity of supply works similar to elasticity of demand. If a change in price results in a large change in the quantity supplied, supply is considered elastic. On the other hand, if a great change in price brings about a small change in the quantity supplied, supply is called inelastic. Here are the determinants of price elasticity of supply: the ability of producers to change the amount of goods they produce time period needed to alter the output. Elasticity of supply is different in the short run and the long run. The quantity of a product supplied in the short run differs from the amount produced, as manufacturers have stocks of finished products (à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ³Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜- à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ- ) as well as raw materials which they have to build up or reduce. In the long run quantity supplied and quantity produced are equal but it takes time to adjust supply to current demand and going prices. For example, supply of many goods can be increased over time by allocating alternative resources, investing in an expansion of production capacity, or developing competitive products that can substitute for hot items. Hence, supply is more elastic in the long run than in the short run. COMMENTS A different price-quantity combination Ñ-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã‹â€ Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒ Ã‚ ±Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ  ц Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ Ñ‚Ã Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’à Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜-; an entrepreneur expecting a price increase might find that à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’, Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ¹ Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’Ñ Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚  à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚  ц Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸, à Ã‚ ¼Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ³ à Ã‚ ±Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ·Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸, ц°Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾; a business reckoning on a price cut might find that à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’, Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ¹ Ñâ‚ ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ¶Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚  ц Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸, à Ã‚ ¼Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ³ à Ã‚ ±Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ·Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸, ц°Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾. Exercise 1. Read, translate into Ukrainian in written form and memorize the definitions of the following economic terms and concepts. Elastic supply: Supply for which a percentage change in a products price causes a larger percentage change in the quantity supplied. à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ : à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ  à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ° Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜- à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ² ц Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜- Ñ‚Ã Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’ à Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾ à Ã‚ ±Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’шà Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜- à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ-. Elasticity of supply: The degree to which supply of a commodity responds to a change in that commoditys price. à Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ-: à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¶Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚  à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ° Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ  Ñ‚Ã Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™ Ñâ‚ ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ³Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™ ц Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ Ñ‚Ã Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™. Inelastic supply: Supply for which a percentage change in a products price causes a smaller percentage change in the quantity supplied. à Ã‚ Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ : à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ  à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ° Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜- à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ° ц Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ Ñ‚Ã Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’ à Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾ à Ã‚ ¼Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã‹â€ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜- à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™. Law of supply: the economic law that states as the price of a commodity that producers are willing and able to offer for sale during a particular period of time rises (falls), the quantity of the commodity supplied goes up (decreases), all non-price determinates being equal. à -à Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ½ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ-: à Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒâ€˜-ц¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ¹ à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ½, Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ¹ Ñ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ ¶Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ , ц°Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾ Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾ ц Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ° Ñ‚Ã Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™, Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜Ã†â€™ à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ±Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ³Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒâ€˜- Ñ‚Ã Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜- à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚  à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¶Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™ à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ¹ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ´ ц¡Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™, à Ã‚ ·Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  (Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ), à Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’à Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜-Ñ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’ à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ³Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾ Ñ‚Ã Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™ à Ã‚ ·Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  (Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’Ñ Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ ), à Ã‚ ²Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜- à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒâ€˜- à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã‹â€ Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã… ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’Ñ Ãƒâ€˜   à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸. Quantity supplied: the amount of a product that producers are willing and able to sell at a certain price during a time period, all other factors that may determine supply remaining the same. à Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ-: à Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’à Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜-Ñ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’ Ñ‚Ã Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ², Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜- à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ±Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ³Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒâ€˜- Ñ‚Ã Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜- à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜- ц Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¶ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ³Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™ ц¡Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™, à Ã‚ ²Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜- Ñ -à Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã‹â€ Ãƒâ€˜- Ñ„Ã Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸, Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜- à Ã‚ ¼Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¶Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’ à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-ÑÅ ½ à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã‹â€ Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã… ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’Ñ Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚  à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸. Supply: the total amount of a commodity available for purchase by consumers. à Ã… ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ : Ñ Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’à Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜-Ñ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’ Ñ‚Ã Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ² à Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ à Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚  à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ ±Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚  Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¶Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸. Supply curve: the graphical representation of how supply varies as prices change. à Ã… ¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ-: à Ã‚ ³Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ€˜-ц¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ µ à Ã‚ ²Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ±Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¶Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚  Ñ‚Ã Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ³Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾, Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ º à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ  à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã… ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’Ñ Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚  Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾ à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã… ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã… ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’Ñ Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚  ц Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸. Supply schedule: a table showing the quantities of a product that would be offered for sale at various prices at a given time. à Ã‚ ¨Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜-Ñ-: Ñ‚Ã Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ±Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ , ц°Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ·Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬  à Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’à Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜-Ñ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’ Ñ‚Ã Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™, Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ¹ à Ã‚ ±Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ µ à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ¹ à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¶ à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ° Ñâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ·Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜- ц Ãƒâ€˜-à Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¿Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ´Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¶ à Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ³Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾ ц¡Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™.